Angel (1999)


Angel
Budget$2,000,000
TaglineLive fast. Die never.
GenreAction, Drama, Fantasy, Thriller, Horror
CountryUSA
Filming LocationsUniversal Studios - 100 Universal City Plaza, Universal City, California, USA
LanguageEnglish
ColorColor
Film TypeSeries
Film ClassFantasy Comedy
MoodFantastic Reality
ThemesVampires, Righting the Wronged, Haunted By the Past, Unlikely Heroes, Redemption, Heroic Mission
TonesMacabre, Goth, Nocturnal, Eerie, Moody, Rousing, Witty, Bittersweet
TagsApocalypse, Demon, Fight, Friendship, Investigator, Spell [magic], Supernatural Forces, Supernatural Powers, Teamwork, Vampire

Angel is an American television series, a spin-off of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The series was created by Buffy's creator, Joss Whedon, in collaboration with David Greenwalt, and first aired on October 5, 1999. Like Buffy, it was produced by Whedon's production company, Mutant Enemy.


Cast and Crew


Charles Gunn

Lorne

Winifred 'Fred' Burkle

Lilah Morgan

Lindsey McDonald

Darla

Harmony Kendall

Detective Kate Lockley

Gavin Park

Allen Doyle

Daniel Holtz

The Groosalugg

Holland Manners

Justine Cooper

The Beast

Sahjhan

Jonathan M. Woodward
Knox

Linwood Murrow

Matthew James
Merl

Jasmine

Marcus Hamilton

Landok

Thomas Burr
Lee Mercer

Virginia Bryce

Trish Burkle

Roger Burkle

Carey Cannon
Female Oracle

Randall Slavin
Male Oracle

Jarrod Crawford
Rondell

David Nabbit

Gwen Raiden

Julia Lee
Anne Steele

Nina Ash

Cyvus Vail

Nathan Reed

Michael Phenicie
Silas

Doctor Sparrow

Sven Holmberg
Delivery Guy 

Leland Crooke
Archduke Sebassis

Ryan Alvarez
Demon Slave

Lawyer 

Mark Colson
Izzy

Marie Chambers
Mother

First Worshipper 

Andrew Parks
Priest #1 

Jackson Bolt
Pylea Demon

Rachelle Roderick
Rebel 

Jeffrey Bell
Office Mailman 

Markus Redmond
Griff 

Anthony Cistaro
Ethros Demon 

John Mahon
Trevor Lockley

Lucas 

Andrew Wells

Tom McCleister
Host's Elder

Wo-Pang

Chris Durand
Demon Henchman #1 

Justin Shilton
Billy Blim

Jim Abele
Laurence

The Girl

Michael Halsey
Rutherford Sirk

Drogyn

Jeff Ricketts
Spider Monster 

George

Brian Tahash
Constable Narwek

Thomas Crawford
Eater Demon 

Drew Wicks
Blix 

Fury #1

Adoni Maropis
Rebel Leader

The Beast Master

Bob Fimiani
Codger Demon 

An Le
Fury #2

David Figlioli
Bartender 

Senator Helen Brucker

Derek Anthony
Dying Black Man 

Jason Padgett
Holden Raines 

Jamie McShane
Demon 

Robert Peters
Arney

Mark Ginther
Head Demon Guy 

Bronwen Davies
Caroline Holtz

Madison Gray
Fury #3

Danan Pere
Rebel #1

Adrienne Evans
Colleen

Rod Tate
Bruiser

Kevin Fry
Skilosh Demon

Brett Wagner
Bohg'dar Demon 

Kasha Kropinski
Sarah Holtz

Joshua Grenrock
Angel Greeter 

Oliver Simon

Lyle Kanouse
Diner Counter Guy 

Louis E. Rosas
Demon Bidder 

Joel Heyman
Fell Brethren #2 

Craig Appel
Demon Soldier

Director

James A. Contner

David Greenwalt

Tim Minear

Bill L. Norton

Skip Schoolnik

Marita Grabiak

Vern Gillum

David Grossman

Michael Grossman

Frederick King Keller

Jefferson Kibbee

David Straiton

Bruce Seth Green

Turi Meyer

Jeffrey Bell

R.D. Price

Thomas J. Wright

Michael Lange

David Semel

Writer

David Greenwalt

Tim Minear

Jeffrey Bell

Mere Smith

Elizabeth Craft

Sarah Fain

Ben Edlund

Jim Kouf

Douglas Petrie

Tracey Stern

David H. Goodman

Scott Murphy

Producer

Gail Berman
executive producer

Sandy Gallin
executive producer

David Greenwalt
executive producer / consulting producer

Fran Rubel Kuzui
executive producer

Kaz Kuzui
executive producer

executive producer

Kelly A. Manners
producer

Skip Schoolnik
co-producer

Tim Minear
co-executive producer / consulting producer 

Marti Noxon
consulting producer

Jeffrey Bell
co-executive producer / co-producer 

co-producer / producer 

consulting producer / co-executive producer 

Ben Edlund
supervising producer / producer

Jim Kouf
consulting producer

R.D. Price
associate producer

producer

consulting producer

James A. Contner
co-producer

Tracey Stern
producer

David Simkins
co-executive producer

Original Music

Robert J. Kral

Christophe Beck

Cinematographer

Ross Berryman

Herbert Davis

Editor

Mark Goldman

Mark S. Westmore

George Pilkinton

Casey O. Rohrs

Casting Director

Anya Colloff

Jennifer Fishman

Amy McIntyre Britt

Barbara Stordahl

Angela Terry

Chadwick Cohn

Production Designer

Stuart Blatt

Art Director

William V. Ryder

Set Decorator

Sandy Struth

Costume Designer

Shawna Trpcic

Jessica Pazdernik

Chic Gennarelli

Enid Harris

Makeup Department

Robert Hall
special makeup designer: Almost Human, Inc / special makeup effects creator

Dayne Johnson
makeup supervisor

Diana Acrey
head hair stylist / hair stylist

Christopher Burdett
special makeup effects designer

Elvis Jones
special makeup effects artist: Almost Human, Inc

Anna Fleiner
makeup artist

David DeLeon
makeup artist

David B. Miller
special makeup effects artist

Steve Fink
special makeup effects coordinator

John Vulich
special makeup effects creator

Toby Lamm
special makeup effects artist / makeup artist

Mary Ann Valdes
head hair stylist

Deborah Holmes Dobson
hair stylist

Lynda Kyle Walker
assistant department head hair stylist

sculptor: Almost Human

Steven E. Anderson
makeup artist

Barney Burman
makeup artist

Jason Collins
supervisor: Almost Human, Inc.

Ken Culver
foam technician

Roxy D'Alonzo
special makeup effects artist

Gabriel De Cunto
special makeup effects artist

Glenn Hetrick
special makeup effects artist

Matthew Jorgensen
sculptor/painter: Tech Optic Nerve

Martin Kopulsky
hair stylist

Mark Landon
additional makeup artist

Jeff Lewis
makeup artist

Veronica Lorenz
department head assistant

Michael Marino
sculptor: optic nerve

Debbie Mezera
office manager: Almost Human Inc

Anthony Miner
key hair stylist

Larry Odien
special makeup effects artist

James Ojala
special makeup effects technician

Gary J. Perticone
assistant hair department head

Gloria Ponce
head hair stylist

Brian Sipe
special makeup effects artist

Robin Slater
makeup artist

Brian Wade
special makeup effects artist

Production Manager

David M. Burns
production supervisor

Robert D. Nellans
unit production manager

Christopher J. Ray
post-production supervisor

Jennifer Davis
post-production supervisor

Kelly A. Manners
unit production manager

Second Unit Director or Assistant Director

Rich Sickler
first assistant director / second assistant director

Ian Woolf
first assistant director

Robert Papazian Jr.
second assistant director

Brenda Kalosh
first assistant director

Robin R. Oliver
first assistant director

Peter Dress
second assistant director

Michael Finn
first assistant director / second assistant director

Robyn Linn Willey
dga trainee / second second assistant director

W. Scott Wolf
second assistant director

Scott K. Harris
second assistant director

C. Andrew Hall
dga trainee

Marisol 'Ari' Oyola
dga trainee

Pete Waterman
dga trainee

Danny Green
second assistant director: second unit

Robert D. Nellans
first assistant director

Nicholas Wolfert
second second assistant director / second assistant director: second unit

Mike Massa
second unit director

Adele Simmons
first assistant director

Michael Zimbrich
first assistant director

Bryan Cox
second second assistant director

Kelly A. Manners
second unit director

Vernon Davidson
dga trainee

Beryl Cohen
additional second second assistant director

Gabriel Echeverria
dga trainee

Tony Eng
second assistant director: second unit

Michael T. McNerney
dga trainee

Michelene Mundo
second assistant director

Carla R. Ponzio
second assistant director: second unit

Spiro Razatos
second unit director

Brian 'Coach' Rosett
additional second assistant director / second assistant director: second unit

Carrie Specht
additional second assistant director / second assistant director

Jodie Thomas
dga trainee

Art Department

Chris Carriveau
lead man / leadman

Courtney Jackson
property master

Andrew Reeder
set designer

Robert W. Anderson
property master

Bruce Di Valerio
construction coordinator

Ted Wilson
construction coordinator

Michael Kauffman
on-set property master

Scott Nifong
assistant property master

Will Batts
set designer

Terri Lee Holm
lead painter

Leonard Harman
assistant art director

Lilly Frank
scenic decorator

Cameron Matheson
set dresser

Greg Knapp
construction medic

Joey Genitempo
set painter

Todd McKibben
constructor / property maker gang boss

Joe Pew
art department production assistant

Kimberley Rosenberg
set dresser

Ed Servaites
on-set dresser

Randy Severino
set dresser

Alex Thompson
painter

Edwin Kinji Ushiro
storyboard artist

Thomas R. Wagner
on-set property master / property master

Edward Wouters
general construction foreman

Andrew Marc Zerebko
constructor / property maker gang boss

Sound Department

Mike Marchain
adr editor

Thierry J. Couturier
supervising sound editor

Tami Treadwell
adr recordist

Brydon Baker III
production sound mixer

Kurt Kassulke
sound re-recording mixer

Adam Sawelson
sound re-recording mixer

Tom Perry
sound re-recording mixer

Robert Ewing
supervising sound editor

Bill Jackson
sound re-recording mixer

Kevin McCullough
sound editor

Ron Evans
sound re-recording mixer

Kurt Peterson
boom operator

Mark Cleary
sound effects editor

Gary Alexander
sound re-recording mixer

Deb Adair
sound re-recording mixer

Gary Coppola
sound re-recording mixer

Todd Orr
sound re-recording mixer

Gregg Frazier
boom operator

Douglas J. Schulman
production sound mixer

David Barbee
sound effects editor

Ken Ahern
utility sound: second unit

Gregg Barbanell
foley artist

Josh Bower
cable person

Susan Cahill
adr editor

Jesse K-D. Dodd
foley mixer

Michael Florimbi
sound mixer

Kamal Humphrey
utility sound technician

Brian D. Lucas
sound recordist

Michael Miller
adr mixer

Steven Morrow
production sound mixer: second unit

Chris Quilty
boom operator: second unit

Raymond E. Spiess III
adr editor

Tom Stasinis
sound mixer: second unit

Special Effects

Michael Gaspar
special effects coordinator

Dennis Yeager II
special effects technician

Tony Chavez
special effects

Michael O'Brien
special effects makeup: Optic Nerve

David J. Barker
special effects assistant: Las Vegas pyro unit

Dan Crawley
special effects makeup

William Dawson
special effects foreman

Steve Fink
special effects makeup

Nathan Franson
special effects makeup

Matthew Jorgensen
special effects makeup

Michael Kay
special effects technician

Rodd Matsui
special effects makeup

Chris Nelson
special effects foreman

Brendon O'Dell
special effects technician

Richard Redlefsen
special effects makeup: Almost Human

Martin Simon
special effects

Chris Tappy
special effects assistant: Las Vegas

Gary Yee
special effects makeup

Visual Effects

Carl Seibert
visual effects producer

Loni Peristere
visual effects supervisor

Rocco Passionino
visual effects supervisor / digital effects supervisor

Michael Vaglienty
flame artist

Rick Baumgartner
visual effects producer

Kelly Bechtle-Woods
digital artist: 3D animator

Raoul Bolognini
visual effects coordinator

Kristen Branan
head of production: Zoic studios

Stephen Brand
digital effects artist

Brent Burpee
systems engineer

Rick Cortes
digital compositor

Jarrod Davis
digital artist

John Decker
digital artist

Leif Einarsson
digital effects artist

Eyal Erez
senior effects animator

Fish Essenfeld
senior compositor

Randy Goux
visual effects

Seth Tyler Hall
visual effects

digital compositor: 2001

Wensen Ho
digital compositor: Zoic Studios

Michael D. Leone
CG supervisor

Mark Lipsmeyer
digital artist: Zoic Studios

Sophia S. Longoria
visual effects producer

Andrew Orloff
CG supervisor

Kevin Quattro
digital artist

Scott Ramsey
visual effects producer

Deb Santosa
visual effects artist

Lee Stringer
digital artist

Bryan Whitaker
digital effects artist

Bob Williamson
digital compositor

Nina Yoon
paint/roto artist

Stunts

Mike Massa
stunt coordinator / stunt double 

Michael M. Vendrell
stunt coordinator / fight coordinator

Don McGovern
stunt actor

Mike Gunther
stunt performer / stunt coordinator

Scott Workman
stunts / stunt double 

Spiro Razatos
stunt coordinator

Andy Gill
stunts

David M. Graves
utility stunts

Steve Tartalia
stunt double: Spike / stunts

Jennifer Badger
stunt double

Mike Mukatis
stunts

Andy Dylan
stunts

Gregory J. Barnett
stunts / stunt coordinator

Christopher Leps
stunts

stunts / utility stunts

Clayton J. Barber
stunts

Todd Bryant
stunts

Henry Kingi Jr.
stunt performer

Brian Simpson
stunt performer

stunt double

Edward Conna
stunts

Bob McGovern
stunt double

Jeff Cadiente
stunt coordinator

Jennifer Cobb
stunt double: Mercedes McNab

Tsuyoshi Abe
stunt performer

Jeffrey G. Barnett
stunts

Michael Owen
stunts / stunt double

Charlie Picerni
stunts

David Wald
stunts

Ron Yuan
guest fight choreographer

Nancy Young
stunt double: Stephanie Romanov / stunts

Michael Gaines
stunt double

Karin Silvestri
stunt double / stunt double: Laurel Holloman

Craig Appel
utility stunts

Max Daniels
stunt performer

Kevin Derr
stunt double / stunts

Nancy Thurston
stunt performer

Danny Downey
stunt double / stunt performer

Roger Stoneburner
stunt double

Matthew Taylor
stunts

Banzai Vitale
stunts

Thom Williams
demon stunt

Cassandra McCormick
stunt double: Amy Acker

Jeff Danoff
stunts

Jalil Jay Lynch
stunts

Robert Alonzo
stunt double

Randall Archer
stunt rigger / stunts

Brian Avery
stunts

Paul Beahm
stunts

Cheryl Bermeo
stunt double: Drusilla

stunts

Joe Bucaro III
stunts

Mark Chadwick
stunts

Alex Chansky
stunt double: Simon Templeman

Marijane Cole
stunt double

Tim Connolly
stunts

Alex Daniels
utility stunts

Thomas DuPont
stunts

Casey Easlick
stunt double

Michael Endoso
stunts

Jonathan Eusebio
stunts

Roel Failma
stunt performer

Dane Farwell
stunts

Jeremy Fitzgerald
stunt double

Christian J. Fletcher
stunt rigger

James Giaquinto
utility stunts

Jeffrey Lee Gibson
stunts

Jason Gray
utility stunts

Jeri Habberstad
stunts

Jes Hellwege
stunts

Michael Hilow
utility stunts

Nicola C. Hindshaw
stunt zombie

Jermaine Holt
stunt double: Jermaine Tamaze Holt

stunts

Zach Hudson
stunt double: Vincent Kartheiser

Cinda-Lin James
stunts

Lance King
utility stunts

Cheryl Lawson
stunt double: Charisma Carpenter

Lane Leavitt
stunts

Michael Li
stunts

Alex Madison
stunts

Sam Maloof
stunt performer

Rob Mars
assistant stunt coordinator / stunts

Brad Martin
stunts

utility stunts

stunt performer

Rich Minga
stunts

stunt double

Heidi Moneymaker
stunts

utility stunts: Mini-Wrestler

Sonja Munsterman
stunts

Mark Norby
stunts

Gloria O'Brien
stunt double

J.J. Perry
stunts

Diesel Pfingsten
stunts

Denney Pierce
stunts

Casey Pieretti
stunts

Tanoai Reed
stunts

Bridgett Riley
stunt performer

Pat Romano
stunt rigger

John Ross
stunts

Jon Sakata
stunts

Marc Schaffer
stunt performer

Steve Schriver
stunts

Tom Schultz
stunts

Karen Sheperd
stunt double: Faith

Gayle Sherman
stunts

Paul E. Short
stunts

Monty L. Simons
stunts

Tim Sitarz
stunts

Mike Smith
stunts

Chad Stahelski
stunt double: Angel

Gary Ray Stearns
stunts

Kym Stys
stunt double

Justin Sundquist
stunts

Clark Tucker
stunt double: Ron Melendez

Steve Upton
stunts

Jon Valera
stunts

Jimmy Waitman
stunts

Ryan Watson
stunts

Tim Weske
fencing stunts

Marcus Young
stunts

Camera and Electrical Department

Ray Ortega
electrician

Andre Sobczak
key grip

Keith A. Hascher
electrician

Matt Mania
key grip

Jeff Noble
electrician

Rick A. West
chief lighting technician / chief electrician

Chris Brow
grip

Guy Skinner
camera operator

Dan Kerns
chief lighting technician

Chris Friebus
film loader

Leslie R. Morris
camera operator

Eric Fletcher
Steadicam operator / camera operator

Joe Broderick
camera operator

Frederick Iannone
camera operator

Craig Price
dolly grip: second unit

Kenneth Estes
computer and video playback operator

Robert Stenger
first assistant camera

Justin M. Lubin
still photographer

Victor Macias
dolly grip

Matthew A. Petrosky
first assistant camera: "b" camera, second unit

Waide R. Allen
electrician

Kirk Bloom
second assistant camera

Shane Buttle
rigging electrician

Brian Cantrell
electrician

Keith Davis
electrician

Tim Day
best boy grip

Houman Forough
camera operator

Graham Futerfas
electrician

Rob J. Greenlea
grip

Dan Kneece
Steadicam operator

Chris Lewis
electrician

Michael Lowrance
electrician

Jerry L. Mandley
best boy electric

Dan Ming
first assistant camera: second unit

Robert Reid
best boy grip

George Santo Pietro
dolly grip

Charles Schner
camera operator: "b" camera

Stephen Sfetku
first assistant camera

Alvin Simmons
dolly grip

Peyton Skelton
set lighting technician

Chris M. Stephens
grip

R. Michael Stringer
dolly grip: second unit

Michael Stumpf
additional Steadicam operator / camera operator: "b" camera

Adan Torres
additional assistant camera

Adam Ward
first assistant Steadicam

Animation Department

John Karner
digital artist

Casting Department

Lonnie Hamerman
casting associate

Michael V. Nicolo
casting assistant / casting associate

Anya Colloff
original casting

Jennifer Fishman
original casting

Amy McIntyre Britt
original casting

Carissa Chapman
casting assistant

Lee A. Miles
extras casting

Dana Olson
extras casting

Christine Yammine
casting assistant

Costume and Wardrobe Department

Dana Casey
set costumer

Ariel Gold
set costumer

Carrie Grace
assistant costume designer

Mari Grimaud
costume supervisor

Renee Levy Hazelton
set costumer

Billy Ray McKenna
costume supervisor

Heather Sladinski
set costumer

Julie Yang Silver
costume supervisor

Editorial Department

Jennifer Davis
post-production coordinator

Lisa Lassek
assistant editor

Marc Pollon
assistant editor

Bruce Gorman
assistant editor

George Pilkinton
assistant editor

Joshua Charson
assistant editor

Frederick Wardell
assistant editor

Ben Wegner
assistant editor

Mark Goldman
assistant editor

Monica Gillette
assistant editor

Music Department

John C. King
music coordinator / music supervisor

Cami Elen
composer: main title theme / singer: main title theme

Holly Knight
composer: main title theme / singer: main title theme

Jymm Thomas
composer: main title theme / singer: main title theme

Tim Isle
music editor

Douglas Romayne
composer: additional music

Fernand Bos
music editor

Brian Ralston
composer: additional music

Zoran Borisavljevic
composer: additional music

Alex Kharlamov
composer: additional music

Marina Kotsios
composer: additional music

Transportation Department

Bob Ellis
transportation coordinator

Glen Enzen
transportation coordinator

Alex Connaughton
driver: honeywagon

J. Armin Garza II
driver: camera car

Thomas A. Gordon
transportation coordinator

Buddy Hunter
driver

Beau Reed
driver

Other Crew

Mere Smith
executive story editor / script coordinator 

Stacey Levin
head publicist

Stacey Barber
payroll accountant

Kimberley Barnhart
assistant production coordinator

Andrea Gruber
publicist

Allan B. Holt
creature effects technician

Gary Watt
location manager

Regis Kimble
title designer: main titles

Matthew S. Partney
assistant: Kelly A. Manners

David M. Burns
assistant: Kelly A. Manners

Elyse Allyn Ramsdell
production coordinator

Jain Sekuler
script supervisor

Petra Jorgensen
script supervisor

Diego Gutierrez
assistant: Joss Whedon

Elizabeth Craft
executive story editor / story editor

Sarah Fain
executive story editor / story editor

Maggi Solso
assistant location manager

Brent Fletcher
script coordinator

Elisabeth James
script coordinator / assistant: David Greenwalt

Carlos R. Lawson
production auditor

Edwin L. Perez
production auditor

Jesse Stern
assistant: David Greenwalt

Mitchell Binder
location manager

Wes Hagan
assistant location manager

John J. Gray
assistant: Tim Minear

executive story editor

Jose Molina
assistant: Howard Gordon

Ed Lippman
location manager

Scott Murphy
story editor

Brett Matthews
assistant: Joss Whedon

Kevin Funston
location manager

Michael Boretz
assistant: Joss Whedon

David Eck
production coordinator

Julie McKinnon
production assistant

Kern J. Eccles
assistant: Joss Whedon

Tracy Bellomo
assistant: Jeffrey Bell

Dayne Johnson
puppeteer

Andrew R. Gardiner
location scout

Harrison Held
photo double

choreographer

Ray Buffer
photo double

Amy R. Bynum
assistant: Marti Noxon

John Campbell
production assistant

Ardy Brent Carlson
production assistant

Sarah Clifford
animal trainer

Kevin Collins
assistant location manager

Jason Cooper
production assistant

Bob Corff
voice teacher

Steve Cubine
assistant production coordinator

John Martin Davis
set production assistant

Nathan Draper
production assistant

Jaroslava Fernandez
special effects contact lens technician

Glen Gabel
production assistant

Mark Ivie
sword choreographer

Dino Juico
stand-in: Daniel Dae Kim

Bryan Kalfus
key set production assistant

Gregg Kawecki
production assistant

Bridgette Kelley
script supervisor: second unit

Jeremy Lawson
assistant to writer / production assistant

Melinda Martin-Galvin
first aid

Tracy L. Moody
script supervisor: second unit

Lucas Moore
studio teacher

Alicia Richards
first aid

Michelle Schrauwers
key set production assistant

Michael D. Starks
craft service

Sam Sullivan III
script supervisor: second unit

Tony Swatton
weapons

Carla Thorpe
production assistant

Ben Thurston
production assistant

John Trujillo
layout board

Lary Vinocur
location assistant

Troy Waters
marine coordinator

Sharon 'Mae' West
script supervisor

Zack Whedon
production assistant

script supervisor: second unit

Richard Wilson
assistant accountant

Thanks

in loving memory of

Production Company

Kuzui Enterprises
-

Sandollar Television
-

20th Century Fox Television
-

Distributor

WB Television Network, The

Chum Television

Sky One

Sci-Fi Channel, The

Channel 4 Television Corporation

Channel 5 Television

Viasat3

Sorozat

Cool TV

Fox

Net5

Poén!

Rede Globo de Televisão

Televisión Federal (Telefe)

Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment
, ,

Special Effects

Almost Human

Digital Magic Company

Radium

Zoic Studios

Miscellaneous

Executive Assurance
security

ChapmanLeonard Studio Equipment
cranes and dollies

Digital Magic Company
post-production services

Entertainment Clearances
rights and clearances

Laser Pacific Media
post-production services

Movie Movers
cast trailers, hair and make-up trailers

ShowBiz Enterprises
draperies

Todd-AO Studios (West)
sound post-production

Transition Music
music provided by